EastCoastChris
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Thought this could be helpful. Plan to move it to archives.
A
abnormal psychology see psychopathology
achievement tests tests that measure learned skills and knowledge in academic areas such as reading, writing, and mathematics
acting out the process of expressing unconscious emotional conflicts or feelings via actions rather than words
adaptive behavior everyday living skills (e.g., bathing, toileting, walking, talking, getting dressed, preparing a meal) that a person learns in the process of adapting to his or her surroundings and that are required for personal and social sufficiency
affect describes observable behavior that represents the expression of an emotion
agraphia loss of a pre-existing ability to express one's self through writing
akinesia state of motor inhibition or reduced voluntary movement
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) an organization of alcoholics that uses group methods, such as inspirational-supportive techniques, to help rehabilitate chronic alcoholics
alcoholism Excessive dependence on or addiction to alcohol, usually to the point that the personâs physical and mental health is threatened or harmed
alienation the estrangement felt in a setting one views as foreign, unpredictable, or unacceptable
amnesia loss of memory
antidepressant any of a class of psychotherapeutic drugs used in the treatment of pathological depression
antipsychotic any of a class of psychotherapeutic drugs used to treat psychosis, particularly schizophrenia
anxiety the apprehensive anticipation of future danger or misfortune accompanied by an unpleasant mood or somatic symptoms of tension
aphasia an impairment in the understanding or transmission of ideas by language in any of its forms (reading, writing, or speaking) that is due to injury or disease of the brain centers involved in language
apperception perception as modified and enhanced by one's own emotions, memories, and biases
apraxia inability to carry out previously learned skilled motor activities despite intact comprehension and motor function
aptitude tests psychological tests used to assess innate potential for learning
assertiveness training a technique sometimes used by therapists to help individuals become more confident and develop effective interpersonal skills
ataxia partial or complete loss of coordination of voluntary muscular movement
attention the ability to focus in a sustained manner on a particular stimulus or activity
attitudes positive or negative reactions to people, objects, events and ideas
aversion therapy a type of behavior therapy in which the response averts an aversive stimulus before it occurs
aversive stimulus in instrumental conditioning, a stimulus such as an electric shock, which the animal does everything to avoid and nothing to attain
B
behavior modification a systematic method for substituting desirable responses and behaviors for undesirable ones
behaviorism a theoretical outlook that emphasizes the role of environment and learning
biofeedback a treatment method using monitoring instruments to "feed back" to patients physiological information they can learn to use to control what are usually involuntary bodily processes
C
catharsis the healthful release of ideas through "talking out" conscious material accompanied by an appropriate emotional reaction
classical conditioning the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response by association with another stimulus that already elicits the same response
client-centered therapy type of psychotherapy based on the assumption that all people have an internal tendency to "self actualize", and this motivates and guides them toward positive, healthy growth
cognition the mental processes by which knowledge is acquired
cognitive pertaining to thinking, knowing, understanding or processing information
cognitive dissonance refers to unpleasant feelings that occur whenever we experience inconsistency between attitudes or inconsistency between our attitudes and behavior
cognitive therapy a therapy of the present that focuses on recognizing and altering negative and maladaptive thoughts and beliefs rather than identifying root causes of problems
comorbidity the simultaneous appearance of two or more illnesses
comprehensive developmental assessment an evaluation completed for a child of preschool age to determine the developmental status of the child in cognition, physical, communication, adaptive and self-help skills
compulsion repetitive ritualistic behavior such as hand washing or ordering or a mental act such as praying or repeating words silently that aims to prevent or reduce distress or prevent some dreaded event or situation
concrete thinking thinking characterized by immediate experience, rather than abstractions
conservation a term developed by Piaget to describe the understanding that physical objects stay constant even if they change in shape or appearance
contingency a relation between two events in which one is dependent upon another
contingency contract in behavior modification, a written agreement between a student and adults stating what the consequences will be for specific behaviors
contingency reinforcement in operant or instrumental conditioning, ensuring that desired behavior is followed by positive consequences and that undesired behavior is not rewarded
control group a group to which the experimental manipulation is not applied
convergent thinking thinking in which one tries to narrow down possibilities and reach the best solution to a problem
coping mechanisms ways of adjusting to environmental stress without altering one's goals or purposes; includes both conscious and unconscious mechanisms
correlation
correlation coefficient a number that expresses both the size and the direction of a correlation
counseling form of guidance in which a trained person offers advice or education about specific problems in living
crisis intervention brief therapeutic approach used to ameliorate acute psychiatric emergencies
criterion groups groups whose test performance sets the validity criterion for certain tests
criterion-referenced test a test that measures how well an individual student performs compared to some established standard of performance (level of mastery)
critical learning stage that time when a student who has mastered a concept or skill in one setting is ready to generalize what has been learned within other settings
critical period specific period of early development during which an organism acquires certain patterns of behavior as a result of internal or external clues
crystallized intelligence the repertoire of information, cognitive skills, and strategies acquired by the application of fluid intelligence to various fields See also fluid intelligence
culture refers to the widely shared beliefs, customs, values and norms of a community that are socially transferred across generations
D
defense mechanism in psychoanalytic theory, a collective term for a number of reactions that try to ward off or lessen anxiety by various unconscious means; see also displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, repression
deinstitutionalization a movement intended to obtain better and less expensive care for chronically mentally ill patients in their own communities rather than at large, centralized hospitals
delusions false beliefs that usually involve a misinterpretation of perceptions or experiences
depersonalization an alteration in the perception or experience of the self so that one feels detached from, and as if one is an outside observer of, one's mental processes or body (e.g., feeling like one is in a dream)
detachment a behavior pattern characterized by general aloofness in interpersonal contact
developmental disability a chronic disability caused by a mental or physical impairment and resulting in severe limitations in self-help, communication, learning, mobility, or independent living
diagnosis determination of the nature and extent of a specific disorder
disinhibition Freedom to act according to one's inner drives or feelings, with less regard for restraints imposed by cultural norms
disorder pathological condition of the mind or body
disorientation confusion about the time of day, date, or season (time), where one is (place), or who one is (person). Confusion; impairment of awareness of time, place, and person (the position of the self in relation to other persons)
dissociation a defense mechanism in which a person's identity, memories, ideas, feelings, or perceptions are separated from conscious awareness and cannot be recalled or experienced voluntarily
distractibility inability to attend to the appropriate or relevant stimuli in a given situation
distribution an arrangement of statistical data that exhibits the frequency of the occurrence of the values of a variable
divergent thinking an aspect of creativity that is characterized by an ability to generate many possible unusual but appropriate solutions to standard types of questions
double-blind technique a method for evaluating drug effects independent of the effects produced by the expectations of research participants (placebo effects) and of physicians. This is done by assigning patients to a drug group or a placebo group with both patients and staff members in ignorance of who is assigned to which group. See also placebo effect
dyskinesia distortion of voluntary movements with involuntary muscular activity
dyslexia impaired reading ability
E
echolalia a tendency, sometimes observed in autistic children, to persistently repeat (echo) the words and phrases of others
elevated mood An exaggerated feeling of well-being, or euphoria or elation. A person with elevated mood may describe feeling "high," "ecstatic," "on top of the world," or "up in the clouds."
emotional lability frequent mood changes
encoding The process by which information is stored in memory
endorphins a family of chemicals produced within the brain, whose chemical composition and effects are similar to pain-relieving opiates such as morphine
ethnicity a distinct group of people recognized as a class based upon characteristics, such as religion, language, ancestry, culture, or national origin
evaluation procedures used to determine whether a student is disabled and the nature of the special education and related services the student needs
experiment a study in which the investigator manipulates one or more variables to determine their effect on the research participantâs response
external validity the degree to which a studyâs participants, stimuli, and procedures adequately reflect the world as it actually is
extinction in classical conditioning, the weakening of the tendency of the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response by unreinforced presentations of the conditioned stimulus; in instrumental conditioning, a decline in the tendency to perform the instrumental response brought about by unreinforced occurrences of that response
extroversion A state in which attention and energies are largely directed outward from the self as opposed to inward toward the self, as in introversion
F
factor analysis A statistical method for studying the interrelations among various tests, the object of which is to discover what the tests have in common and whether these communalities can be ascribed to one or several factors that run through all or some of these tests
family therapy A general term for a number of therapies that treat the family or couple, operating on the assumption that the key to family or marital distress is not necessarily in the problems of any individual family member but is rather in the interrelationships within the family
fine motor skills small muscle movements such as those involved in eye-hand coordination, reaching, grasping and manipulating objects
flat affect a lack of emotional responsiveness
fluid intelligence the ability, which is said to decline with age, to deal with essentially new problems; also see crystallized intelligence
free association in psychoanalysis, having clients express their thoughts and feelings as they happen without censoring them
functional assessment of behaviora way to systematically identify positive and negative behaviors by observing a student to develop behavior intervention strategies
functional skills tasks and activities most often required in everyday life
G
gender stereotypes shared, typically inflexible beliefs about what men and women should do, how they should behave and what traits they have
generalization the transfer of a learned response from one situation to others that are similar to the original
gestalt therapy a theory and therapeutic method that emphasizes resolving psychological conflicts by means of techniques that heighten here-and-now awareness and an understanding of the interrelatedness of all things
grandiosity an inflated appraisal of one's worth, power, knowledge, importance, or identity. When extreme, grandiosity may be of delusional proportions
grade equivalent score refers to the level of test performance of an average student at that grade level, e.g., a score of 4.6 means that on a particular test, the student scored the same as other students in the 6th month of the 4th grade
gross motor skills large muscle movements such as sitting, crawling, standing and walking
group therapy psychotherapy of several persons at one time
H
hallucination a perceived experience that occurs in the absence of actual sensory stimulation
hierarchy of needs Maslow's idea that our inborn needs are arranged in a sequence of stages from the most basic (primitive needs) that must be met first, to the least basic (human needs), that can be fulfilled only if basic needs have been satisfied
holistic therapy emphasizes and deals with the "whole" person. It is based on the integration of the mind, body, emotions, will, and spiritual orientation. How the interplay of these aspects of a person affects happiness, self-esteem and personal relationships is the key
hyperactivity; hyperkinesis excessive movement or restlessness often accompanied by inattention and impulsivity see Attention Deficit Disorder
I
impulsivity the tendency to react quickly and inappropriately to a situation rather than to take the time to consider alternatives and to choose carefully
incongruence the extent of the disparity between one's self concept and one's actual personal experience
insanity legal term indicating that a person cannot be held accountable for his/her actions because of mental illness
intelligence according to Wecshler, the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his or her environment
intelligence tests psychological tests that measure general intellectual functioning
intervention a method or strategy designed to change an individual's behavioral, medical, or health status
IQ (intelligence quotient)a measure of intelligence obtained from an intelligence test and usually expressed as a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 or 16 depending upon the test being used
ideas of reference a characteristic of some mental disorders, notably schizophrenia, in which the individual incorrectly interprets casual incidents and external events as having direct reference to himself or herself
ideation the process of thinking
identification A defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, by which one patterns oneself after some other person. Identification plays a major role in the development of one's personality and specifically of the superego. To be differentiated from imitation or role modeling, which is a conscious process
idiot savant a derogatory term for a savant
illusion A misperception or misinterpretation of a real external stimulus, such as hearing the rustling of leaves as the sound of voices; also see hallucination
impulsivity the tendency to react quickly and inappropriately to a situation rather than to take the time to consider alternatives and to choose carefully; also see Attention Deficit Disorder
intellectualization A mental process in which the person engages in excessive abstract thinking to avoid confrontation with conflicts or disturbing feelings
intelligence according to Wechsler, the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his or her environment. See also IQ (Intelligence Quotient)
internalization The process whereby moral codes are adopted by the child so that they control her behavior even when there are no external rewards or punishments
internal validityThe degree to which a study is successful at measuring what it purports to measure, with all confounds removed and the dependent variable sensibly measured
intervention a method or strategy designed to change an individual's behavioral, medical, or health status
IQ (intelligence quotient) a measure of intelligence obtained from an intelligence test and usually expressed as a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 or 16 depending upon the test being used
intrinsic motivation motivation that seems inherent in an activity itself, as when we engage in an activity for its own sake or merely because it is fun
introversion preoccupation with oneself and accompanying reduction of interest in the outside world; contrast to extroversion
isolation a defense mechanism operating unconsciously central to obsessive-compulsive phenomena in which the affect is detached from an idea and rendered unconscious, leaving the conscious idea colorless and emotionally neutral
L
labile affect An affect type that indicates abnormal sudden rapid shifts in affect
latent learning Learning that occurs without being manifested by performance
learned helplessnessA condition in which a person attempts to establish and maintain contact with another by adopting a helpless, powerless stance
learning a process based on experience that results in a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge
logical consequences events that follow behavior within a normal social environment
long-term memorythe final phase of memory in which information storage may last from hours to a lifetime
longitudinal study a study where the same individuals are observed at different points in time across the life span
M
magical thinking A conviction that thinking equates with doing. Occurs in dreams in children, in primitive peoples, and in patients under a variety of conditions. Characterized by lack of realistic relationship between cause and effect
maladaptive referring to any mental activity or behavior that is dysfunctional or counterproductive with regard to a person's ability to cope effectively with the problems and stresses of life
maturation the sequential unfolding of genetically programmed behavior and physical characteristics
mean the average of all of the scores in a set of scores
measure of central tendency a single number used to summarize an entire distribution of experimental results; also see mode, median, mean
median the middle score within a set of scores such that half have lower scores and half have greater scores
medical model a model that holds that underlying pathology is organic and that treatment should be conducted by physicians
mental age (MA) a measure of mental development expressed in terms of the average mental ability at a given age
mental retardation a condition occurring during the developmental period, characterized by below normal general intelligence and difficulty coping with the social demands of a person's environment; traditionally defined as an IQ score below 70 with impaired adaptive behavior
metacognition a general term for knowledge about knowledge
minimal brain dysfunction; minimal brain damage poorly defined terms applied to children who show behavioral characteristics (e.g., hyperactivity, distractibility) thought to be associated with brain damage
minimum competency tests tests used by states and school districts to ensure that student promotions and graduations are based on mastery of certain basic skills
minority a group within a country that differs in race, religion or national origin from the larger part of the population
mnemonics Deliberate strategies for helping memory, many of which use imagery
mode the score that occurs most frequently
modeling demonstrating to others how to perform particular behaviors
mood A pervasive and sustained emotion that colors the perception of the world. Common examples of mood include depression, elation, anger, and anxiety
motivation the process that initiates, directs and sustains behavior in order to satisfy psychological and physiological needs
motor skills learned skills involving physical dexterity or the coordination of muscular movements
multiple intelligences a theory developed by Howard Gardner that postulates six essential, independent mental capacities: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and personal intelligence
N
negative reinforcement increasing the probability of a response by ending or withdrawing an unpleasant stimulus upon completion of the response
neurodevelopmental disorder A disorder that stems from early brain abnormalities
neuropsychological assessmentA specialized kind of psychological testing used to pinpoint the pattern of cognitive strengths and impairments that occurs with learning disabilities, aging, brain injuries, or diseases
neurotransmitter a chemical, such as acetylcholine, that is released from the axon of one neuron and binds to a specific site in the dendrite of an adjacent neuron, triggering a nerve impulse
neurosis an unconscious mental condition that causes anxiety that impairs normal functioning
nondirective techniques A set of psychotherapy techniques devised by Carl Rogers. As far as possible, the counselor refrains from offering advice or interpretation but only tries to clarify the patientâs own feelings by echoing or restating what he says
normal curvethe symmetrical bell-shaped curve of a normal distribution
normal distribution a symmetrical bell shaped frequency distribution that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population
norm-referenced test a test that compares a student's score to the scores of a representative group of students the same age
norms In intelligence testing, the scores taken from a large sample of the population against which an individualâs test scores are evaluated
null hypothesis an assertion that the independent variable in a study will have no effect on the independent variable
O
obsession a recurrent and persistent thought, impulse, or image experienced as intrusive and distressing
operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) A process by which the results of the person's behavior determine whether the behavior is more or less likely to occur in the future
orientation State of awareness of oneself and oneâs surroundings in terms of time, place, and person
overlearning practice that is continued beyond the point of mere mastery of memorized material or of a skill
P
panic attacks discrete periods of sudden onset of intense apprehension, fearfulness, or terror, often associated with feelings of impending doom
panic is acute and extreme anxiety with accompanying physiologic symptoms
pathological diseased
perception the process by which the brain actively selects, organizes and interprets sensory information
personality a distinctive constellation of relatively stable behaviors, thoughts, motives and emotions which characterize an individual
percentile rank a derived test score that indicates what percentage of the norm group was exceeded by the individual's score, e.g., a percentile rank of 47 means the student scored better than did 47 percent (47 out of 100) students
perception the ability to organize and interpret sensory information
perceptual-motor skills such as paper and pencil use and eye-hand coordination
perseveration persistently repeating an activity or behavior
persona The role that one assumes or displays in public or society; one's public image or personality, as distinguished from the inner self
personality enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself
personality inventories paper-and-pencil tests of personality that ask questions about feelings, desires, or customary behavior
placebo a chemically inert substance that produces real medical benefits because the patient believes it will help him or her
placebo effect the actual medical or psychological benefits of a treatment administered to a patient who believes it has therapeutic powers even though it actually has none
positive reinforcement the increased probability that a response will result after giving a reward or stimulus
primary reinforcer a reinforcer used in operant conditioning that fulfils a basic physical need and does not depend on learning
problem solving a systematic means of developing alternative solutions to problem situations and analyzing the possible effects of taking those alternatives
projection a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, in which what is emotionally unacceptable in the self is unconsciously rejected and attributed (projected) to others
projective tests diagnostic tests in which the test taker "projects" some aspect of his or her personality in response to the presentation of ambiguous test materials
psychoactive drugs chemical substances that are capable of altering mood, perception or thought; if used medically called a controlled substance
psychoanalysis a theory of personality and a psychological treatment that emphasizes the recovery of unconscious conflicts, motives and defenses through the use of such techniques as free association and dream analysis
psychodrama a therapy developed by Jacob L. Moreno that uses guided dramatic action to examine problems or issues raised by an individual or a group and to facilitate insight, personal growth, and integration on cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels
psychopathology the study of the causes and nature of mental disease or abnormal behavior
psychopharmacology the management of psychiatric illness using medication such as antidepressants and antipsychotics
psychiatry the branch of medicine concerned with the prevention, cause, and treatment of mental disorders
psychiatrist a medical doctor with additional training in diagnosing and treating mental illness
psychological test a measuring device which is used to assess an individuals psychological status so that it can be compared to others
psychologist a specialist in evaluating, diagnosing and treating individuals with social, emotional, behavioral, learning or developmental problems
psychometrist a person trained in testing the psychological characteristics of students
psychomotor relating to the physical activities associated with mental processes
psychopathology the study of mental disorders or a mental disorder itself
psychotherapy a collective term for all forms of treatment that use psychological rather than somatic methods
psychotherapist a person trained to treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders
psychotherapeutic drug a drug used to alter abnormal thinking, feelings, or behavior
psychotropic medication medication that affects thought processes or feeling states
punishment an event that immediately follows a behavior and results in that behavior being reduced or eliminated
R
rational-emotive therapy a directive form of psychotherapy developed by Albert Ellis that focuses on altering irrational beliefs about self and others in order to modify subsequent maladaptive emotional responses
rationalization a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, in which an individual attempts to justify or make consciously tolerable by plausible means, feelings or behavior that otherwise would be intolerable
reaction formation a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, in which the individual adopts feelings, ideas, and behaviors that are the opposites of impulses harbored either consciously or unconsciously
reality therapy a counseling method developed by William Glasser that helps clients live and plan in the present, evaluate both what they want and the behaviors they are presently choosing, and then create a change-producing plan
reasoning the determination of the conclusions that can be drawn from certain premises
recall a process in which some item must be produced from memory
redirection a non-punitive behavioral intervention strategy in which children are lead to adopt acceptable substitute behaviors for their inappropriate actions
regression retreating to an earlier developmental level involving less mature behavior and responsibility
rehearsal the act of purposely repeating or thinking about information in order to maintain it short term memory or transfer it to long term memory
reinforcement any event or procedure that brings about learning or increases the frequency of a response, such as a reward
relearning a method for measuring retention that compares the time required to relearn material with the time taken to initially learn it
response the activity or inhibition of previous activity of an organism or any of its parts resulting from stimulation
reward a stimulus administered to an organism following a correct or desired response that increases the probability of occurrence of the response
Ritalin (methylphenidate hydrochloride) a central nervous system stimulant medication used to treat Attention Deficit Disorder
reliability the ability of a test to give the same or similar scores time after time
reliability coefficient the coefficient used in determining the consistency (repeatability) of tests
repression a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, that blocks unacceptable ideas, fantasies, feelings, or impulses from consciousness
response the activity or inhibition of previous activity of an organism or any of its parts resulting from stimulation
retrieval the process of searching for and finding some item in memory
role playingtraining a person to function more effectively by having the person act out desired social behaviors under controlled conditions
S
sample a subset of a population selected by the investigator for study
savant a mentally retarded person who has some remarkable talent that seems out of keeping with his or her low level of general intelligence
school phobia a condition in which a child is anxious and afraid to go to school, often resulting from the child's overly dependent relationship with his or her parents
secondary reinforcer a reinforcer that has acquired reinforcing properties by being associated with other (usually primary) reinforcers
self-actualization according to Abraham Maslow and some other proponents of the humanistic approach to personality, the full realization of oneâs potential
self-concept a collection of beliefs that an individual has about himself which may or may not be realistic and may not be shared by others
sensation the process through which the senses detect sensory stimuli and transmit them to the brain without interpretation
sensation seeking a predisposition to seek novel experiences, look for thrills and adventure, and be highly susceptible to boredom
separation anxiety the emotional distress that is shown by many infants when they are separated from their primary care giver
shaping gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern by reinforcing successive approximations of it
short-term memory memory that retains information for only a short period without rehearsal
social skills training a systematic way to teach adaptive social behavior that includes assessing skills, modeling, behavioral rehearsal, and role playing
socialization the process whereby the child learns social norms and roles by observing and imitating parents, peers and other role models in their social environment
social learning theory a theoretical approach to socialization and personality that stresses learning by observing others who serve as models and who show the child whether a response he or she already knows should or should not be performed
social phobia A marked and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others
socially maladjusted violating laws or community standards but conforming to standards of some social subgroup, such as a gang
somatic pertaining to or characteristic of the body
standard score a derived score that shows how far a given score is above or below the average score of the norm group
standard deviation a measure of the amount by which an individual test score differs from the mean score
standardized tests assessment instruments that include precise instructions for administering and scoring, and that meet certain validity and reliability criteria
standardization group the group against which an individualâs test score is evaluated
statistics The process of quantitatively describing, analyzing, and making inferences about numerical data
stimulus an agent, such as an environmental change, that serves to elicit a response
storage the maintenance of encoded material in memory over time
stress a pattern of specific and non-specific response that the organism makes when its ability to cope with the environment is compromised
stressor any life event or life change that may be associated temporally with the onset, occurrence, or exacerbation of a mental disorder
suppression the conscious effort to control and conceal unacceptable impulses, thoughts, feelings, or acts
symptom a subjective manifestation of a pathological condition that is reported by the affected individual
syndrome a grouping of signs and symptoms, based on their frequent occurrence together, that may suggest a common underlying disease or condition
systematic desensitization a behavior therapy procedure used to modify behaviors associated with phobias by creating a hierarchy of anxiety-producing stimuli, and gradually presenting the stimuli to the individual until they no longer produce anxiety
T
task analysis reducing complex tasks to their simpler parts so that they can be taught more easily
time out a short period of social isolation during which a student cannot receive attention or earn rewards
taxonomy a classification system
test profile a graphical representation of an individualâs performance on several components of a test; often used to describe a personâs pattern of abilities or traits
test-retest reliability measure of the correlation between scores of the same people on the same test on the same test given on two different occasions
tic an involuntary, sudden, rapid, recurrent, stereotyped motor movement or vocalization
token economy a behavior modification method, typically used in hospitals or other institutional settings, in which targeted responses are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items
U
unconscious according to Freud, mental processes such as motives, desires and memories that are not usually subject to awareness but exert a significant effect on behavior
V
validity in reference to tests, the extent to which a test measures what it is suppose to measure
variability the degree to which scores in a frequency distribution depart from the central value
variable a quantity that may assume any one of a set of values
variance a measure of the variability of a frequency distribution
A
abnormal psychology see psychopathology
achievement tests tests that measure learned skills and knowledge in academic areas such as reading, writing, and mathematics
acting out the process of expressing unconscious emotional conflicts or feelings via actions rather than words
adaptive behavior everyday living skills (e.g., bathing, toileting, walking, talking, getting dressed, preparing a meal) that a person learns in the process of adapting to his or her surroundings and that are required for personal and social sufficiency
affect describes observable behavior that represents the expression of an emotion
agraphia loss of a pre-existing ability to express one's self through writing
akinesia state of motor inhibition or reduced voluntary movement
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) an organization of alcoholics that uses group methods, such as inspirational-supportive techniques, to help rehabilitate chronic alcoholics
alcoholism Excessive dependence on or addiction to alcohol, usually to the point that the personâs physical and mental health is threatened or harmed
alienation the estrangement felt in a setting one views as foreign, unpredictable, or unacceptable
amnesia loss of memory
antidepressant any of a class of psychotherapeutic drugs used in the treatment of pathological depression
antipsychotic any of a class of psychotherapeutic drugs used to treat psychosis, particularly schizophrenia
anxiety the apprehensive anticipation of future danger or misfortune accompanied by an unpleasant mood or somatic symptoms of tension
aphasia an impairment in the understanding or transmission of ideas by language in any of its forms (reading, writing, or speaking) that is due to injury or disease of the brain centers involved in language
apperception perception as modified and enhanced by one's own emotions, memories, and biases
apraxia inability to carry out previously learned skilled motor activities despite intact comprehension and motor function
aptitude tests psychological tests used to assess innate potential for learning
assertiveness training a technique sometimes used by therapists to help individuals become more confident and develop effective interpersonal skills
ataxia partial or complete loss of coordination of voluntary muscular movement
attention the ability to focus in a sustained manner on a particular stimulus or activity
attitudes positive or negative reactions to people, objects, events and ideas
aversion therapy a type of behavior therapy in which the response averts an aversive stimulus before it occurs
aversive stimulus in instrumental conditioning, a stimulus such as an electric shock, which the animal does everything to avoid and nothing to attain
B
behavior modification a systematic method for substituting desirable responses and behaviors for undesirable ones
behaviorism a theoretical outlook that emphasizes the role of environment and learning
biofeedback a treatment method using monitoring instruments to "feed back" to patients physiological information they can learn to use to control what are usually involuntary bodily processes
C
catharsis the healthful release of ideas through "talking out" conscious material accompanied by an appropriate emotional reaction
classical conditioning the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response by association with another stimulus that already elicits the same response
client-centered therapy type of psychotherapy based on the assumption that all people have an internal tendency to "self actualize", and this motivates and guides them toward positive, healthy growth
cognition the mental processes by which knowledge is acquired
cognitive pertaining to thinking, knowing, understanding or processing information
cognitive dissonance refers to unpleasant feelings that occur whenever we experience inconsistency between attitudes or inconsistency between our attitudes and behavior
cognitive therapy a therapy of the present that focuses on recognizing and altering negative and maladaptive thoughts and beliefs rather than identifying root causes of problems
comorbidity the simultaneous appearance of two or more illnesses
comprehensive developmental assessment an evaluation completed for a child of preschool age to determine the developmental status of the child in cognition, physical, communication, adaptive and self-help skills
compulsion repetitive ritualistic behavior such as hand washing or ordering or a mental act such as praying or repeating words silently that aims to prevent or reduce distress or prevent some dreaded event or situation
concrete thinking thinking characterized by immediate experience, rather than abstractions
conservation a term developed by Piaget to describe the understanding that physical objects stay constant even if they change in shape or appearance
contingency a relation between two events in which one is dependent upon another
contingency contract in behavior modification, a written agreement between a student and adults stating what the consequences will be for specific behaviors
contingency reinforcement in operant or instrumental conditioning, ensuring that desired behavior is followed by positive consequences and that undesired behavior is not rewarded
control group a group to which the experimental manipulation is not applied
convergent thinking thinking in which one tries to narrow down possibilities and reach the best solution to a problem
coping mechanisms ways of adjusting to environmental stress without altering one's goals or purposes; includes both conscious and unconscious mechanisms
correlation
correlation coefficient a number that expresses both the size and the direction of a correlation
counseling form of guidance in which a trained person offers advice or education about specific problems in living
crisis intervention brief therapeutic approach used to ameliorate acute psychiatric emergencies
criterion groups groups whose test performance sets the validity criterion for certain tests
criterion-referenced test a test that measures how well an individual student performs compared to some established standard of performance (level of mastery)
critical learning stage that time when a student who has mastered a concept or skill in one setting is ready to generalize what has been learned within other settings
critical period specific period of early development during which an organism acquires certain patterns of behavior as a result of internal or external clues
crystallized intelligence the repertoire of information, cognitive skills, and strategies acquired by the application of fluid intelligence to various fields See also fluid intelligence
culture refers to the widely shared beliefs, customs, values and norms of a community that are socially transferred across generations
D
defense mechanism in psychoanalytic theory, a collective term for a number of reactions that try to ward off or lessen anxiety by various unconscious means; see also displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, repression
deinstitutionalization a movement intended to obtain better and less expensive care for chronically mentally ill patients in their own communities rather than at large, centralized hospitals
delusions false beliefs that usually involve a misinterpretation of perceptions or experiences
depersonalization an alteration in the perception or experience of the self so that one feels detached from, and as if one is an outside observer of, one's mental processes or body (e.g., feeling like one is in a dream)
detachment a behavior pattern characterized by general aloofness in interpersonal contact
developmental disability a chronic disability caused by a mental or physical impairment and resulting in severe limitations in self-help, communication, learning, mobility, or independent living
diagnosis determination of the nature and extent of a specific disorder
disinhibition Freedom to act according to one's inner drives or feelings, with less regard for restraints imposed by cultural norms
disorder pathological condition of the mind or body
disorientation confusion about the time of day, date, or season (time), where one is (place), or who one is (person). Confusion; impairment of awareness of time, place, and person (the position of the self in relation to other persons)
dissociation a defense mechanism in which a person's identity, memories, ideas, feelings, or perceptions are separated from conscious awareness and cannot be recalled or experienced voluntarily
distractibility inability to attend to the appropriate or relevant stimuli in a given situation
distribution an arrangement of statistical data that exhibits the frequency of the occurrence of the values of a variable
divergent thinking an aspect of creativity that is characterized by an ability to generate many possible unusual but appropriate solutions to standard types of questions
double-blind technique a method for evaluating drug effects independent of the effects produced by the expectations of research participants (placebo effects) and of physicians. This is done by assigning patients to a drug group or a placebo group with both patients and staff members in ignorance of who is assigned to which group. See also placebo effect
dyskinesia distortion of voluntary movements with involuntary muscular activity
dyslexia impaired reading ability
E
echolalia a tendency, sometimes observed in autistic children, to persistently repeat (echo) the words and phrases of others
elevated mood An exaggerated feeling of well-being, or euphoria or elation. A person with elevated mood may describe feeling "high," "ecstatic," "on top of the world," or "up in the clouds."
emotional lability frequent mood changes
encoding The process by which information is stored in memory
endorphins a family of chemicals produced within the brain, whose chemical composition and effects are similar to pain-relieving opiates such as morphine
ethnicity a distinct group of people recognized as a class based upon characteristics, such as religion, language, ancestry, culture, or national origin
evaluation procedures used to determine whether a student is disabled and the nature of the special education and related services the student needs
experiment a study in which the investigator manipulates one or more variables to determine their effect on the research participantâs response
external validity the degree to which a studyâs participants, stimuli, and procedures adequately reflect the world as it actually is
extinction in classical conditioning, the weakening of the tendency of the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response by unreinforced presentations of the conditioned stimulus; in instrumental conditioning, a decline in the tendency to perform the instrumental response brought about by unreinforced occurrences of that response
extroversion A state in which attention and energies are largely directed outward from the self as opposed to inward toward the self, as in introversion
F
factor analysis A statistical method for studying the interrelations among various tests, the object of which is to discover what the tests have in common and whether these communalities can be ascribed to one or several factors that run through all or some of these tests
family therapy A general term for a number of therapies that treat the family or couple, operating on the assumption that the key to family or marital distress is not necessarily in the problems of any individual family member but is rather in the interrelationships within the family
fine motor skills small muscle movements such as those involved in eye-hand coordination, reaching, grasping and manipulating objects
flat affect a lack of emotional responsiveness
fluid intelligence the ability, which is said to decline with age, to deal with essentially new problems; also see crystallized intelligence
free association in psychoanalysis, having clients express their thoughts and feelings as they happen without censoring them
functional assessment of behaviora way to systematically identify positive and negative behaviors by observing a student to develop behavior intervention strategies
functional skills tasks and activities most often required in everyday life
G
gender stereotypes shared, typically inflexible beliefs about what men and women should do, how they should behave and what traits they have
generalization the transfer of a learned response from one situation to others that are similar to the original
gestalt therapy a theory and therapeutic method that emphasizes resolving psychological conflicts by means of techniques that heighten here-and-now awareness and an understanding of the interrelatedness of all things
grandiosity an inflated appraisal of one's worth, power, knowledge, importance, or identity. When extreme, grandiosity may be of delusional proportions
grade equivalent score refers to the level of test performance of an average student at that grade level, e.g., a score of 4.6 means that on a particular test, the student scored the same as other students in the 6th month of the 4th grade
gross motor skills large muscle movements such as sitting, crawling, standing and walking
group therapy psychotherapy of several persons at one time
H
hallucination a perceived experience that occurs in the absence of actual sensory stimulation
hierarchy of needs Maslow's idea that our inborn needs are arranged in a sequence of stages from the most basic (primitive needs) that must be met first, to the least basic (human needs), that can be fulfilled only if basic needs have been satisfied
holistic therapy emphasizes and deals with the "whole" person. It is based on the integration of the mind, body, emotions, will, and spiritual orientation. How the interplay of these aspects of a person affects happiness, self-esteem and personal relationships is the key
hyperactivity; hyperkinesis excessive movement or restlessness often accompanied by inattention and impulsivity see Attention Deficit Disorder
I
impulsivity the tendency to react quickly and inappropriately to a situation rather than to take the time to consider alternatives and to choose carefully
incongruence the extent of the disparity between one's self concept and one's actual personal experience
insanity legal term indicating that a person cannot be held accountable for his/her actions because of mental illness
intelligence according to Wecshler, the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his or her environment
intelligence tests psychological tests that measure general intellectual functioning
intervention a method or strategy designed to change an individual's behavioral, medical, or health status
IQ (intelligence quotient)a measure of intelligence obtained from an intelligence test and usually expressed as a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 or 16 depending upon the test being used
ideas of reference a characteristic of some mental disorders, notably schizophrenia, in which the individual incorrectly interprets casual incidents and external events as having direct reference to himself or herself
ideation the process of thinking
identification A defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, by which one patterns oneself after some other person. Identification plays a major role in the development of one's personality and specifically of the superego. To be differentiated from imitation or role modeling, which is a conscious process
idiot savant a derogatory term for a savant
illusion A misperception or misinterpretation of a real external stimulus, such as hearing the rustling of leaves as the sound of voices; also see hallucination
impulsivity the tendency to react quickly and inappropriately to a situation rather than to take the time to consider alternatives and to choose carefully; also see Attention Deficit Disorder
intellectualization A mental process in which the person engages in excessive abstract thinking to avoid confrontation with conflicts or disturbing feelings
intelligence according to Wechsler, the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his or her environment. See also IQ (Intelligence Quotient)
internalization The process whereby moral codes are adopted by the child so that they control her behavior even when there are no external rewards or punishments
internal validityThe degree to which a study is successful at measuring what it purports to measure, with all confounds removed and the dependent variable sensibly measured
intervention a method or strategy designed to change an individual's behavioral, medical, or health status
IQ (intelligence quotient) a measure of intelligence obtained from an intelligence test and usually expressed as a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 or 16 depending upon the test being used
intrinsic motivation motivation that seems inherent in an activity itself, as when we engage in an activity for its own sake or merely because it is fun
introversion preoccupation with oneself and accompanying reduction of interest in the outside world; contrast to extroversion
isolation a defense mechanism operating unconsciously central to obsessive-compulsive phenomena in which the affect is detached from an idea and rendered unconscious, leaving the conscious idea colorless and emotionally neutral
L
labile affect An affect type that indicates abnormal sudden rapid shifts in affect
latent learning Learning that occurs without being manifested by performance
learned helplessnessA condition in which a person attempts to establish and maintain contact with another by adopting a helpless, powerless stance
learning a process based on experience that results in a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge
logical consequences events that follow behavior within a normal social environment
long-term memorythe final phase of memory in which information storage may last from hours to a lifetime
longitudinal study a study where the same individuals are observed at different points in time across the life span
M
magical thinking A conviction that thinking equates with doing. Occurs in dreams in children, in primitive peoples, and in patients under a variety of conditions. Characterized by lack of realistic relationship between cause and effect
maladaptive referring to any mental activity or behavior that is dysfunctional or counterproductive with regard to a person's ability to cope effectively with the problems and stresses of life
maturation the sequential unfolding of genetically programmed behavior and physical characteristics
mean the average of all of the scores in a set of scores
measure of central tendency a single number used to summarize an entire distribution of experimental results; also see mode, median, mean
median the middle score within a set of scores such that half have lower scores and half have greater scores
medical model a model that holds that underlying pathology is organic and that treatment should be conducted by physicians
mental age (MA) a measure of mental development expressed in terms of the average mental ability at a given age
mental retardation a condition occurring during the developmental period, characterized by below normal general intelligence and difficulty coping with the social demands of a person's environment; traditionally defined as an IQ score below 70 with impaired adaptive behavior
metacognition a general term for knowledge about knowledge
minimal brain dysfunction; minimal brain damage poorly defined terms applied to children who show behavioral characteristics (e.g., hyperactivity, distractibility) thought to be associated with brain damage
minimum competency tests tests used by states and school districts to ensure that student promotions and graduations are based on mastery of certain basic skills
minority a group within a country that differs in race, religion or national origin from the larger part of the population
mnemonics Deliberate strategies for helping memory, many of which use imagery
mode the score that occurs most frequently
modeling demonstrating to others how to perform particular behaviors
mood A pervasive and sustained emotion that colors the perception of the world. Common examples of mood include depression, elation, anger, and anxiety
motivation the process that initiates, directs and sustains behavior in order to satisfy psychological and physiological needs
motor skills learned skills involving physical dexterity or the coordination of muscular movements
multiple intelligences a theory developed by Howard Gardner that postulates six essential, independent mental capacities: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and personal intelligence
N
negative reinforcement increasing the probability of a response by ending or withdrawing an unpleasant stimulus upon completion of the response
neurodevelopmental disorder A disorder that stems from early brain abnormalities
neuropsychological assessmentA specialized kind of psychological testing used to pinpoint the pattern of cognitive strengths and impairments that occurs with learning disabilities, aging, brain injuries, or diseases
neurotransmitter a chemical, such as acetylcholine, that is released from the axon of one neuron and binds to a specific site in the dendrite of an adjacent neuron, triggering a nerve impulse
neurosis an unconscious mental condition that causes anxiety that impairs normal functioning
nondirective techniques A set of psychotherapy techniques devised by Carl Rogers. As far as possible, the counselor refrains from offering advice or interpretation but only tries to clarify the patientâs own feelings by echoing or restating what he says
normal curvethe symmetrical bell-shaped curve of a normal distribution
normal distribution a symmetrical bell shaped frequency distribution that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population
norm-referenced test a test that compares a student's score to the scores of a representative group of students the same age
norms In intelligence testing, the scores taken from a large sample of the population against which an individualâs test scores are evaluated
null hypothesis an assertion that the independent variable in a study will have no effect on the independent variable
O
obsession a recurrent and persistent thought, impulse, or image experienced as intrusive and distressing
operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) A process by which the results of the person's behavior determine whether the behavior is more or less likely to occur in the future
orientation State of awareness of oneself and oneâs surroundings in terms of time, place, and person
overlearning practice that is continued beyond the point of mere mastery of memorized material or of a skill
P
panic attacks discrete periods of sudden onset of intense apprehension, fearfulness, or terror, often associated with feelings of impending doom
panic is acute and extreme anxiety with accompanying physiologic symptoms
pathological diseased
perception the process by which the brain actively selects, organizes and interprets sensory information
personality a distinctive constellation of relatively stable behaviors, thoughts, motives and emotions which characterize an individual
percentile rank a derived test score that indicates what percentage of the norm group was exceeded by the individual's score, e.g., a percentile rank of 47 means the student scored better than did 47 percent (47 out of 100) students
perception the ability to organize and interpret sensory information
perceptual-motor skills such as paper and pencil use and eye-hand coordination
perseveration persistently repeating an activity or behavior
persona The role that one assumes or displays in public or society; one's public image or personality, as distinguished from the inner self
personality enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself
personality inventories paper-and-pencil tests of personality that ask questions about feelings, desires, or customary behavior
placebo a chemically inert substance that produces real medical benefits because the patient believes it will help him or her
placebo effect the actual medical or psychological benefits of a treatment administered to a patient who believes it has therapeutic powers even though it actually has none
positive reinforcement the increased probability that a response will result after giving a reward or stimulus
primary reinforcer a reinforcer used in operant conditioning that fulfils a basic physical need and does not depend on learning
problem solving a systematic means of developing alternative solutions to problem situations and analyzing the possible effects of taking those alternatives
projection a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, in which what is emotionally unacceptable in the self is unconsciously rejected and attributed (projected) to others
projective tests diagnostic tests in which the test taker "projects" some aspect of his or her personality in response to the presentation of ambiguous test materials
psychoactive drugs chemical substances that are capable of altering mood, perception or thought; if used medically called a controlled substance
psychoanalysis a theory of personality and a psychological treatment that emphasizes the recovery of unconscious conflicts, motives and defenses through the use of such techniques as free association and dream analysis
psychodrama a therapy developed by Jacob L. Moreno that uses guided dramatic action to examine problems or issues raised by an individual or a group and to facilitate insight, personal growth, and integration on cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels
psychopathology the study of the causes and nature of mental disease or abnormal behavior
psychopharmacology the management of psychiatric illness using medication such as antidepressants and antipsychotics
psychiatry the branch of medicine concerned with the prevention, cause, and treatment of mental disorders
psychiatrist a medical doctor with additional training in diagnosing and treating mental illness
psychological test a measuring device which is used to assess an individuals psychological status so that it can be compared to others
psychologist a specialist in evaluating, diagnosing and treating individuals with social, emotional, behavioral, learning or developmental problems
psychometrist a person trained in testing the psychological characteristics of students
psychomotor relating to the physical activities associated with mental processes
psychopathology the study of mental disorders or a mental disorder itself
psychotherapy a collective term for all forms of treatment that use psychological rather than somatic methods
psychotherapist a person trained to treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders
psychotherapeutic drug a drug used to alter abnormal thinking, feelings, or behavior
psychotropic medication medication that affects thought processes or feeling states
punishment an event that immediately follows a behavior and results in that behavior being reduced or eliminated
R
rational-emotive therapy a directive form of psychotherapy developed by Albert Ellis that focuses on altering irrational beliefs about self and others in order to modify subsequent maladaptive emotional responses
rationalization a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, in which an individual attempts to justify or make consciously tolerable by plausible means, feelings or behavior that otherwise would be intolerable
reaction formation a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, in which the individual adopts feelings, ideas, and behaviors that are the opposites of impulses harbored either consciously or unconsciously
reality therapy a counseling method developed by William Glasser that helps clients live and plan in the present, evaluate both what they want and the behaviors they are presently choosing, and then create a change-producing plan
reasoning the determination of the conclusions that can be drawn from certain premises
recall a process in which some item must be produced from memory
redirection a non-punitive behavioral intervention strategy in which children are lead to adopt acceptable substitute behaviors for their inappropriate actions
regression retreating to an earlier developmental level involving less mature behavior and responsibility
rehearsal the act of purposely repeating or thinking about information in order to maintain it short term memory or transfer it to long term memory
reinforcement any event or procedure that brings about learning or increases the frequency of a response, such as a reward
relearning a method for measuring retention that compares the time required to relearn material with the time taken to initially learn it
response the activity or inhibition of previous activity of an organism or any of its parts resulting from stimulation
reward a stimulus administered to an organism following a correct or desired response that increases the probability of occurrence of the response
Ritalin (methylphenidate hydrochloride) a central nervous system stimulant medication used to treat Attention Deficit Disorder
reliability the ability of a test to give the same or similar scores time after time
reliability coefficient the coefficient used in determining the consistency (repeatability) of tests
repression a defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, that blocks unacceptable ideas, fantasies, feelings, or impulses from consciousness
response the activity or inhibition of previous activity of an organism or any of its parts resulting from stimulation
retrieval the process of searching for and finding some item in memory
role playingtraining a person to function more effectively by having the person act out desired social behaviors under controlled conditions
S
sample a subset of a population selected by the investigator for study
savant a mentally retarded person who has some remarkable talent that seems out of keeping with his or her low level of general intelligence
school phobia a condition in which a child is anxious and afraid to go to school, often resulting from the child's overly dependent relationship with his or her parents
secondary reinforcer a reinforcer that has acquired reinforcing properties by being associated with other (usually primary) reinforcers
self-actualization according to Abraham Maslow and some other proponents of the humanistic approach to personality, the full realization of oneâs potential
self-concept a collection of beliefs that an individual has about himself which may or may not be realistic and may not be shared by others
sensation the process through which the senses detect sensory stimuli and transmit them to the brain without interpretation
sensation seeking a predisposition to seek novel experiences, look for thrills and adventure, and be highly susceptible to boredom
separation anxiety the emotional distress that is shown by many infants when they are separated from their primary care giver
shaping gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern by reinforcing successive approximations of it
short-term memory memory that retains information for only a short period without rehearsal
social skills training a systematic way to teach adaptive social behavior that includes assessing skills, modeling, behavioral rehearsal, and role playing
socialization the process whereby the child learns social norms and roles by observing and imitating parents, peers and other role models in their social environment
social learning theory a theoretical approach to socialization and personality that stresses learning by observing others who serve as models and who show the child whether a response he or she already knows should or should not be performed
social phobia A marked and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others
socially maladjusted violating laws or community standards but conforming to standards of some social subgroup, such as a gang
somatic pertaining to or characteristic of the body
standard score a derived score that shows how far a given score is above or below the average score of the norm group
standard deviation a measure of the amount by which an individual test score differs from the mean score
standardized tests assessment instruments that include precise instructions for administering and scoring, and that meet certain validity and reliability criteria
standardization group the group against which an individualâs test score is evaluated
statistics The process of quantitatively describing, analyzing, and making inferences about numerical data
stimulus an agent, such as an environmental change, that serves to elicit a response
storage the maintenance of encoded material in memory over time
stress a pattern of specific and non-specific response that the organism makes when its ability to cope with the environment is compromised
stressor any life event or life change that may be associated temporally with the onset, occurrence, or exacerbation of a mental disorder
suppression the conscious effort to control and conceal unacceptable impulses, thoughts, feelings, or acts
symptom a subjective manifestation of a pathological condition that is reported by the affected individual
syndrome a grouping of signs and symptoms, based on their frequent occurrence together, that may suggest a common underlying disease or condition
systematic desensitization a behavior therapy procedure used to modify behaviors associated with phobias by creating a hierarchy of anxiety-producing stimuli, and gradually presenting the stimuli to the individual until they no longer produce anxiety
T
task analysis reducing complex tasks to their simpler parts so that they can be taught more easily
time out a short period of social isolation during which a student cannot receive attention or earn rewards
taxonomy a classification system
test profile a graphical representation of an individualâs performance on several components of a test; often used to describe a personâs pattern of abilities or traits
test-retest reliability measure of the correlation between scores of the same people on the same test on the same test given on two different occasions
tic an involuntary, sudden, rapid, recurrent, stereotyped motor movement or vocalization
token economy a behavior modification method, typically used in hospitals or other institutional settings, in which targeted responses are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items
U
unconscious according to Freud, mental processes such as motives, desires and memories that are not usually subject to awareness but exert a significant effect on behavior
V
validity in reference to tests, the extent to which a test measures what it is suppose to measure
variability the degree to which scores in a frequency distribution depart from the central value
variable a quantity that may assume any one of a set of values
variance a measure of the variability of a frequency distribution